Practice

Solar photovoltaic

Also known as: Solar PV, Photovoltaics, Solar panels

Direct conversion of sunlight to electricity through semiconductor cells (most commonly silicon). Discovered in 1839 (photoelectric effect, Becquerel); commercialized through 1950s-60s space programs; reached residential cost-competitiveness in the 2010s. Module costs have fallen ~99% since 1976. Today the cheapest electricity source in most of the world. Combined with batteries, supports off-grid homes, microgrids, and reduces dependence on centralized utility infrastructure. Foundational technology for the energy transition.

Forms

Rooftop residential PV — most common; 5-15 kW typical residential system; produces electricity for the home, exports excess to grid
Utility-scale solar farms — 10 MW to 1+ GW arrays; central generation
Community solar — shared array; subscribers buy share of output without rooftop installation
[[off-grid-living|Off-grid]] PV with battery — fully independent; common in rural homes, cabins, RVs, boats
Building-integrated PV (BIPV) — solar tiles, solar windows, solar facades
Floating PV (floatovoltaics) — on reservoirs, ponds; reduces evaporation while generating power

Cost trajectory

The most consequential technology cost decline of the 21st century:

1976: $79 per watt (silicon module)
2000: $4-5 per watt
2010: $1.80 per watt
2020: $0.27 per watt
2024: $0.10-0.15 per watt at utility scale

Combined with parallel battery cost declines, solar+storage is now competitive with or cheaper than fossil fuels in most of the world.

Considerations

Climate-specific — output varies with latitude, climate, weather; sunny climates produce more
Embodied energy and materials — manufacturing requires energy and materials; lifetime energy payback typically 1-3 years
End-of-life — module recycling is technically feasible but economically marginal; growing concern as early arrays reach end of life
Grid integration — large-scale renewable integration requires grid upgrades, storage, demand-management
Land use — utility-scale solar requires substantial land; agrivoltaics (combining solar with agriculture) emerging

Sources

IRENA (International Renewable Energy Agency) annual cost reports
IEA (International Energy Agency) renewables outlook
Solar Power Your Home for Dummies, Rik DeGunther

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Practical

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Off-grid living solar PV is the dominant electricity source for modern off-grid homes; cost reductions made off-grid feasible at scale
Solar thermal solar thermal and solar PV are complementary; together they can supply household heat and electricity from the sun
Residential wind wind and solar are complementary — wind is often stronger when solar is weaker (winter, night, storms); combined systems are more reliable than either alone

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